The
CIO collaborative is an organization intended to provide strategic consulting for chief information officers nationwide. They have provided a glossary, reprinted below, to allow executives to familiarize themselves with the critical terms used in the IT departments that drive their organizations. The list is divided into general categories and is mainly, but not strictly, alphabetical. Also see our
Key Terms, Acronyms, and Definitions page for more.
Basic IT ComponentsBits and bytes - Short for
binary digi
t, it is the smallest unit of information on a machine. The term was first used in 1946 by John Tukey, a leading statistician and adviser to five presidents. A single bit can hold only one of two values: 0 or 1. More meaningful information is obtained by combining consequtive bits into larger units. For example, a byte is composed of 8 consecutive bits.
Data - Distinct pieces of information usually formatted in a special way.
Database - A collection of information organized in such a way that a computer program can quickly select desired pieces of data. You can think of a database as an electronic filing system. Traditional databases are organized by:
a.
Field - a single piece of information;
b.
Record - a complete set of fields; and
c.
File - a collection of records.
Data Warehouse - A collection of data designed to support management decision making. Data warehouses contain a wide variety of data that present a coherent picture of business conditions at a single point in time.
Data mining A class of databse applications that look for hidden patterns in a group of data that can be used to predict future behavior. For example, data mining software can help retail companies find customers with common interests. The term is commonly misused to describe software that presents data in new ways. True data mining software doesn't just change the presentation, but actually discovers previously unknown relationships among the data.
Program - An organized list of instructions that, when executed, causes the computer to behave in a predetermined manner. Without programs, computers are useless. A program is like a recipe. It contains a list of ingredients (called variables) and a list of directions (called statemets) that tell the computer what to do with the variables. The variables can represent numeric data, text, or graphical images.
SoftwareSoftware - Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically. Software can be divided into two general classes:
a.
Systems software - Consists of low-level programs that interact with the computer at a very basic level. This category of software includes operating systems and utilities for managing computer resources; and
b.
Application software - A program or group of programs designed for end users, also called end-user programs, that includes database programs, word processors, and spreadsheets. Figuratively speaking, applications (sic) software sits on top of systems software because it is unable to run without the operating system and system utilities.
Operating system - The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directions on the disk, and controling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Application - End-user programs that include database programs, word-processors and spreadsheets. Figuratively speaking, application software sites on top of systems software because it is unable to run without the operating system and system utilities.
Input - Whatever goes into the computer. Input can take a variety of forms, from commands you enter from the keyboard to data from another computer or device. A device that feeds data into a computer, such as a keyboard or mouse, is called an input device.
Output - Anything that comes out of a computer. Output can be meaningful information or gibberish, and it can appear in a variety of forms - as binary numbers, as characters, as pictures, and as printed pages. Output devices include display screens, loudspeakers, and printers.
Search engine - A program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where the keywords were found. Although search engine is really a general class of programs, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google that enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web.
COTS - Short for
commercial
off-
the-
shelf, an adjective that describes software that is ready-made and available for sale to the general public. For exampl, Microsift Office is a COTS product that is a packaged software solution for businesses. COTS products are designed to be implemented easily into existing systems without the need for customization.
Custom software - Designed around a company or organization's processes to make those processes more efficient. It it distinct from COTS, which approaches problems in a general way so that the product can be sold to more than one customer.
Middleware - Software that connects two otherwise separate applications. Middleware is sometimes called plumbing because it connects two sides of an application and passes data between them.
Legacy - An application in which a company has already invested considerable time and money.
Application service provider (ASP) - Third-party entity that manages and distributes software based services and solutions to customers across a wide area network from a central data center.
Customer relationship management (CRM) - Entails all aspects of interaction a company has with its customer, whether it is sales or service related. Computerization has also changed the way companies are approaching their CRM strategies because it has also changed consumer buying behavior. With each new advance in technology, especially the proliferation of self-service channels like the Web, more of the relationship is being managed electronically. Organizations are therefore looking for ways to personalize online experiences (a process also referred to as mass customization) through tools such as help-desk software, e-mail organizers and Web development applications.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) - A business management system that integrates all facets of the business, including planning, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. As the ERP methodology has become more popular, software applications, have emerged to help business managers implement ERP in business activities such as inventory control, order tracking, customer service, finance and human resources.
Supply chain management (SCM) - Deals with the planning and execution issues involved in managing a network of facilities and distribution options that perform the functions of procurement of materials; transformation of these materials into intermediate and finished products; and distribution of these finished products to customers.
HardwareHardware - Refers to objects that you can actually touch, like disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips.
Central processing unit (CPU) - The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
Memory - Internal storage areas in the computer. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. Moreover, the term memory is usually used as shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard disk. Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to as main memory. A computer that has one megabyte of memory can hold about 1 million bytes (or characters) of information. The two main types of memory are:
a.
Random-access memory (RAM): The same as main memory. When used by itself, the term RAM refers to read and write memory; that is, you can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data in RAM is lost.
b.
Read-only memory (ROM): Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds instructions for starting the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written in.
Addendum from the California OCIO; RAM capacity increases at an exponential rate. Put simply, Moore's law dictates exponential increases in computing power due to increased density of transistors per chip. In other words, the 2007 edition of this glossary's use of 1 megabyte of RAM as a typical example is one thousandth the size of average RAM in 2008 computers. RAM is currently measured in gigabytes and will be measured in terabytes in the immediate future. A gigabyte is 1 billion bytes while a terabyte is 1 trillion bytes.
Disk storage (hard drive) - Around plate on which data can be encoded. Disks hold on to data even when the computer is turned off. Consequently, disks are the storage medium of choice for most types of data. There are two basic types of disks.
a.
Magnetic disks - Data is encoded as microscopic magnetized needles on the disk's surface. You can record and erase data on a magnetized disk any number of times.
b.
Optical disks - Record data by burning microscopic holes in the surface of the disk with a laser. To read the disc, another laser beam shines on the disk and detects the holes by changes in the reflection pattern.
Personal computer (PC) - A small relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications.
Workstation - A type of computer typically used for engineering applications, desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high graphics capabilities. In terms of computing power, workstations lie between personal computers and minicomputers, although the line is fuzzy on both ends. High-end personal computers are equivalent to low-end workstations. And high-end workstations are equivalent to minicomputers.
Minicomputer - A midsized computer, that lies between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
Mainframe - A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundres, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
ProcessingReal-time - Occuring immediatley. The term is used to describe a number of different computer features.
Batch processing - Resource-intensive activities are grouped and processed as units, rather than being processed immediately on demand.
Parallel processing - The simultaneous use of more than one central processing unit (CPU) to execute a program. Ideally, parallel processing makes a program run faster because there are more engines (CPUs) running it.
Load balancing - Distributing processing and communications activity evenly across a computer network so that no single device is overwhelmed. Load balancing is especially important for networks where it's difficult to predict the number of requests that will be issued to a server. Busy web sites typically employ two or more web servers in a load balancing scheme. If one server starts to get swamped, requests are forwarded to another server with more capacity.
Fault tolerance - The ability of a system to respond gracefully to an unexpected hardware or software failure. There are many levels of fault tolerance, the lowest being the ability to continue operation in the event of a power failure. Many fault-tolerant computer systems mirror all operations - that is, every operation is performed on two or more duplicate systems, so if one fails the other can take over.
Clustering - Connecting two or more computers together in such a way that they behave like a single computer. Clustering is used for parallel processing, load balancing and fault-tolerance. Clustering is a popular strategy for implementing parallel processing applications because it enables companies to leverage the investment already made in PCs and workstations. In addition, it's relatively easy to add nwe CPUs simply by adding a new PC to the network.
Redundant - Used to describe a component of a computer or network system that is used to guard the primary system from failure by acting as a back up system. Redundant components can include both hardware elements of a system -- such as disk drives, peripherals, servers, switches, routers - and software elements - such as operating systems, applications, and databases.
NetworkingNetwork - A group of two or more computer systems linked together. There are many types of compter networks, including:
a.
Local-area networks (LANs): The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building);
b.
Wide-area networks (WANs): The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves;
c.
Campus-area networks (CANs): The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a campus or a military base;
d.
Metropolitan-area networks (MANs): A data network designed for a town or city; and
e.
Home-area networks (HANs): A network contained within a user's home that connects a person's devices.
Backbone - The main wire that connects nodes. The term is often used to describe the main network connections composing the internet.
Server - A computer or device on a network that manages network resources. For example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the network can store files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and a network server is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a computer that processes database queries.
Client - Typically, a client is an application that runs on a personal computer or workstation and relies on a server to perform some operations. For example, an e-mail client is an application that enables you to send and receive e-mail.
Node - In networks, a processing location. A node can be a computer or some ohter device such as a printer. Every node has a unique network address.
SAN - Short for
Storage
Area
Network, a high-speed sub-network of shared storage devices. A storage device is a machine that contains nothing but a disk or disks for storing data. A SAN's architecture works in a way that makes all storage deveices available to all servers on a LAN or WAN. As more storage devices are added to a SAN, they too will be accessible from any server in the larger network.
Telecommunications - Refers to all types of data transmission, from voice to video.
Bandwidth - A range within a band of frequencies or wavelengths or the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
Fiber-optic (fiber) - A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber-optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages modulated onto light waves.
Narrwoband - Restricted frequency band, usually for a single user or used for a single purpose (channel).
Broadband - A type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry several channels at once. Cable TV, for example, uses broadband transmission.
Wireless - Type of network that uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to communicate between nodes.
802.11 - Refers to a family of specifications developed for wireless LAN technology.
Wi-Fi - Short for
wireless
fidelity and is meant to be used generically when referring to any type of 802.11 network.
Wi-Max - A more powerful version of wi-fi that can provide wireless internet access over a wider geographic location such as a city.
Mesh network - Also called mesh topology, mesh is a network topology in which devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology, every node has a connection to every other node in the network.
WAP - Short for
Wireless
Application
Protocol, a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile phones, pagers, and two-way radios.
WEP - Sort for
Wireless
Equivalent
Privacy, a security protocol for for wireless local area networks defined in the 802.11b standard. WEP is designed to provide the same level of security as a that of a wired LAN.
WPA - Short for
Wi-fi
Protected
Access, a wi-fi standard that was designed to improve upon the security features of WEP. The technology is designed to work with existing wi-fi products thjat have been enabled with WEP (ie. as a software upgrade to existing hardware), but the technology includes two improvements over WEP: improved data encryption and user authentication, which is generally missing in WEP.
Bluetooth - A short-range radio technology aimed at simplifying communications among internet devices and between devices and the internet. It also aims to simplify data synchronization between internet devices and other computers. Products with Bluetooth technology must be qualified and pass interoperability testing by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group prior to release. Bluetooth's founding members include Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba.
RFID - Short for
Radio
Frequency
IDentification, a technology similar in theory to bar code identification. With RFID, the electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the RF portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is used to transmit signals. An RFID system consists of an antennae and a transceiver, which read the radio frequency and transfer the information to a processnig device, and a transponder, or tag, which is an integrated circuit containing the RF circuitry and information to be transmitted.
Peer-to-peer - A type of network in which each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities. This differs from client/server architectures, in which some computers are dedicated to serving the others. Peer-to-peer networks are generally simpler, but they usually do not offer the same performance under heavy loads.
Virtual Private Network (VPN) - A network that is constructed by using public wires to connect nodes. For example, there are a number of systems that enable you to create networks using the internet as the medium for transporting data. These systems use encryption and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can access the network and that the data cannot be intercepted.
InternetInternet A global network connecting millions of computers. More than 100countries are linked into exchanges of data, news, and opinions. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the internet is decentralized by design. Each internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its operators can choose which internet services to use and which local services to make available to the global internet community.
Protocol - An agreed upon format for transmitting data between two devices.
Internet protocol (IP) - Specifies the format of packets of data and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocal called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source. IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP, on the other hand, establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can send messages back and forth for a period of time.
VoIP - Short for
Voice
over
IP, the routing of voice conversations over the internet or any other IP network. The voice data flows over a general-purpose packet-switched network, instead of the traditional dedicated, circuit-switched voice transmission lines.
World Wide Web - A system of internet servers that support specially formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Lnaguage) that supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files. This approach means you can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots. Not all internet servers are part of the world wide web.
Web browser - A software application used to locate and display web pages. The three most popular browsers are
Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Each of these are graphical browsers, which means that they can display graphics as well as text. In addition, most modern browsers can present multimedia information, including sound and video, thoug they require plug-ins for some formats.
Web services - A standardized way of intergrating web-based applications using open standards over an internet protocol backbone.
Cookies - Identifies users and possibly prepares customized web pages for them. When you enter a web site using cookies, you may be asked to fill out a form providing such information as your name and interests. This information is packaged into a cookie and sent to your web browser which stores it for later use. The next time you go to the same web site, your browser will send the cookie to the web server/
XML - Short for e
Xtensible
Markup
Language. A specification designed especially for the web that allows designers to create their own customized tags, enabling the definition, transmission, validation, and interpretation of data between applications and between organizations.
Intranet - A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An intranet's web sites look and act just like any other web sites, but the
firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access.
Firewall - A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both harware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized internet users from accessing private networks connected to the internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
Extranet - A buzzword that refers to an internet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders. Whereas an intranet resides behind a firewall and is accessible only to people who are members of the same company or organization, an extranet provides various levels of accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and password, and your identity determines which parts of the extranet you can view. Extranets are becoing a very popular means for business partners to exchange information.
CharacteristicsDisruptive technologies - New technological innovation, product, or service that eventually overturns the existing dominant technology in the market, despite the fact that the disruptive technology is both radically different than the leading technology and that it often initially performs worse than the leading technology according to existing measures of performance.
Open - An architecture whose specifications are public. This includes officially approved standards as well as privately designed architectures whose specifications are made public by the designers. The opposite of open is closed or proprietary. The great advantage of open architectures is that anyone can design add-on products for it. By making an architecture public, however, a manufacturer allows other to duplicate its product.
Architecture - Refers to either hardware or software, or to a combination of hardware and software. The architecture of a system always defines its broad outlines, and may define precise mechanisms as well. An open architecture allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs made by other manufacturers. Open architectures use off-the-shelf components and conform to approved standards. A system with a closed architecture, on the ohter hand, is one whose design is proprietary, making it difficult to connect the system to other systems.
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) - A software architecture where resources on a network are made available as independent serveices that can be accessed without knowledge of their underlying platform. SOA can help businesses respond more quickly and cost-effective to changing market conditions.
Proprietary - Privately owned and controlled. A proprietary design or technique is owned by a company. It also implies that the company has not divulged specifications that would allow other companies to duplicate the product. Increasingly, proprietary architectures are seen as a disadvantage. Consumers prefer open and standardized architectures, which allow them to mix and match products from different manufacturers.
Convergence - The coming together of two or more disparate disiplines or technologies. For example, the so-called fax revolution was produced by a convergence of telecommunications technology, optical scanning technology, and printing technology.
Interface - A boundary accross which two independent systems meet and act on or communicate with each other. In computing technology, there are several types of interfaces, including;
a.
User interface - the keyboard, mouse, menus of a computer system. The user interface allows the user to communicate with the operating system.
b.
Software interface - the languages and codes that the applications use to communicate with each other and with the hardware; and
c.
Hardware interface - the wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to communicate with each other.
Integration - Use of software and architectural principles to bring together a set of computer applications. Without integration, enterprise computing often takes the forms of islands of automation, where the value of individual systems is not maximized because they are working in partial or full isolation.
Interoperable - Characteristics that allow products to work together to accomplish tasks, usually by standard file formats or network protocols.
Scalable - A popular buzzword that refers to how well a hardware or software system can adapt to increased demands. For example, a scalable network system would be one that can start with just a few nodes but can easily expand to thousands of nodes. Scalability can be a very important feature because it means that you can invest in a system with the confidence that you won't outgrow it.
Configuration - The way a system is set up, or the assortment of components that make up the system. Configuration can refer to either hardware or software, or the combination of both. Many software products require that the computer have a certain minimum configuration. For example, the software might require a graphics display monitor and a video adapter, a particular microprocessor, and a minimum amount of main memory.
Enterprise - In the computer industry, the term is often used to describe any large organization that utilizes computers. An intranet, for exampl, is a good example of an enterprise computing system.
Risk ManagementBack up - To copy files to a second medium (a disk or tape) as a precaution in case the first medium fails. One of the cardinal rules in using computers is back up your files regularly.
Archive - To copy files to a long-term storage medium for backup. Large computer systems often have two layers of backup, the first of which is a disk drive. Periodically, the computer operator will archive files on the disk to a second storage device.
Disaster recovery - The ability to restart operations after a disaster. While many of today's larger computer systems contain built-in programs for disaster recovery, standalone recovery programs often provide enhanced features. Disaster recovery is used both in the context of data loss prevention and data recovery.
Hot site - A fully operational offsite data processing facility equipped with both hardware and system software to be used in the event of a disaster or for disaster recovery.
Business continuity - Holistic management process that identifies potential impacts that threaten an organization and provides a framework for building resilience with the capability for an effective response that safeguards the interests of its key stakeholders, reputation, brand and value creating activities.
Encryption - A process that uses a mathematical algorithm to alter information so it is unrecognizable to electronic eavesdroppers or other unauthorized individuals. An encrypted document looks nothing like the oroginal and cannot be interpreted without a digital key both the user and sender possess for the purpose of decryption.
Biometrics - Generally, the study of measurable biological characteristics. In computer security, biometrics refers to authentication techniques that rely on measurable physical characteristics that can be automatically checked.
Hacker - A slang term for a computer enthusiast, ie. a person who enjoys learning programming languages and computer systems and can often be considered an expert on the subject(s). Among professional programmers, depending on how it is used, the term can be either complementary or derogatory, although it is developing an increasingly derogatory connotation.
Phishing - The act of sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be an established legitimate enterprise in an attempt to scma the user into surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft. The e-mail directs the user to visit a web site where they are asked to update personal information, such as passwords and credit card, social security, and bank account numbers, that the legitimate organization already has on file. The web site, however, is bogus and set up only to steal the user's information.
Pharming - Similar in nature to e-mail phishing, pharming seeks to obtain personal or private (usually financial related) information through domain (website name) spoofing. Pharming poisons the domain server by infusing false information, resulting in a user's request being redirected elsewhere. Your browser however will show you are at the correct website, which makes pharming a bit more serious and more difficult to detect.
Spam - Electronic junk mail or junk newsgroup postings. Some people define spam even more generically as any unsolicited e-mail. However, if a long-lost brother finds your e-mail address and sends you a message, this could hardly be called spam, even though it's unsolicited. Real spam is generally e-mail advertising for some product sent to a mailing or newsgroup. In adition to wasting people's time with unwanted e-mail, spam also eats up a lot of network bandwidth.
Spyware - Any software that covertly gathers user information through the user's internet connection without his or her knowledge, usually for advertising purposes. Spyware applications are typically bundled as a hidden component of freeware or shareware programs that can be downloaded from the internet; however, it should be noted that the majority of shareware and freeware applications do not come with spyware.
Trojan horse - A destructive program that masquerades as a benign application. Unlike viruses, trojan horses do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. One of the most insidious types of trojan horse is a program that claims to rid you computer of viruses but instead introduces viruses onto your computer.
Virus - A program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate themselves. All computer viruses are manmade. A simple virus that can make a copy of itself over and over again is relatively easy to produce. Even such a simple virus is dnagerous because it will quickly use all available memory and bring the system to a halt. An even more dangerous type of virus is one capable of transmitting itself across networks and bypassing security systems.
Worm - A progrma or algorithm that replicates itself over a computer network and usually performs malicious actions, such as using up the computer's resources and possibly shutting the system down.
Denial of service attack - An attack technique designed to shut down all transactions on a website, wherein automated programs direct huge amounts of apparently legitimate traffic to a target web site, sometimes from many locations at once.
PositionsChief Information Officer (CIO) - A job title for a manager responsible for information technology within an organization. They often report to the chief executive officer or chief financial officer. The prominence of this position has risen greatly as information technology has become a more important part of business. In a few technology-oriented firms, the CIO may be a member of the executive board.
Chief Security Officer (CSO) - An organization's top executive who is responsible for security. While originally used by information security professionals, the term is sometimes given to the person in charge of physical security. As a result, information technology security executives now sometimes take the title of Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) to differentiate the positions.
Chief Technology Officer - A business executive position whose holder is focused on technical issues in a cmopany. It emerged in the United States in the 1980s as a business-focused extension of the position of Director of Research and Development.
Knowledge worker - One who works primarily with information or one who develops and uses knowledge in the work place.